Geography is a vital component of the UPSC examination, encompassing a broad spectrum of topics essential for both Prelims and Mains GS. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the syllabus, ensuring a thorough understanding of both Physical and Human Geography. It covers the Earth's origin, structure, geomorphic processes, climatology, and oceanography, delving into key geographical phenomena and their implications. Additionally, it addresses critical aspects of demography, urbanization, and economic geography, providing insights into population distribution, urban growth, migration, agriculture, and industrial development.

 

Physical Geography

General Geography

• The Earth's Origin
  • Early Theories
  • Modern Theories - Big Bang Theory
  • Star Formation
  • Formation of Planets
  • Solar System
  • The Evolution of the Earth

Layered Structure (5 layers)

• Evolution of Lithosphere
• Evolution of Atmosphere
• Evolution of Hydrosphere
• Geological History of the Earth

Latitude and Longitude

• Important Parallels and Meridians
• Motions of the Earth - Rotation and Revolution and their Effects
• Inclination of the Earth's Axis and its Effects
• Local and Standard Time, International Date Line, Calendar
• Eclipses - Solar and Lunar
• Origin of Life
• Geological Time Scale

Geomorphology

• Interior of the Earth
  • Sources of Information: Direct and Indirect (Earthquakes, Waves, Magnetic Field)
  • Seismic Waves: Body Waves and Surface Waves
  • Understanding Earth's Interior with the Help of Seismic Waves

Internal Structure of the Earth

• Crust
• Lithosphere
• Mantle
• Asthenosphere
• Outer Core
• Inner Core
• Seismic Discontinuities

Geology

• Minerals
  • Major Elements of the Earth's Crust
  • Physical Characteristics (Crystal Form, Cleavage, Fracture, Lustre, Color, Streak, Transparency, Structure, Hardness, Specific Gravity)
  • Metallic Minerals (Precious, Ferrous, Non-Ferrous)
  • Non-metallic Minerals (Sulphur, Phosphates, Cement)

Rocks

• Aggregate of Minerals
• Petrology
• Rocks and Landforms
• Rocks and Soils
• Three Families of Rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic)
• Rock Cycle

Earthquakes

• Seismic Waves: P, S, Body, and Surface Waves
• Shadow Zone
• Types of Earthquakes
• Causes of Earthquake
• Effects
• Frequency
• Locating an Epicentre
• Distribution of Earthquakes
• Earthquake Observatories

Volcanoes

• Types of Volcanoes: Shield, Composite, Caldera, Flood Basalt, Mid Ocean Ridge
• Types of Lava: Andesitic or Acidic Lava, Basic or Basaltic Lava
• Intrusive Volcanic Landforms: Batholiths, Lacoliths, Lapoliths, Phacoliths, Sills, Dykes
• Extrusive Volcanic Landforms: Geysers and Hot Springs
• Extinct, Dormant, and Active Volcanoes
• Distribution of Volcanoes: Pacific Ring of Fire, Mediterranean Volcanism, Other Regions
• Effects of Volcanoes
• Tsunami: Mechanism, Properties, and Effects

Geomorphic Processes

• Earth's Surface and Its Formation
• Exogenic Forces (External Processes)
• Endogenic Forces (Internal Processes)
• Gradation, Degradation & Aggradation
• Geomorphic Processes
  • Endogenic Processes: Diastrophism, Orogenic Processes, Epierogenic Processes, Earthquakes, Plate Movements, Volcanism
  • Exogenic Forces: Denudation Processes, Weathering, Mass Movements, Erosion, Transportation & Deposition

Distribution of Continents & Oceans Theories

• Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1912): Pangea, Panthalasa, Laurasia, Gondwana Land
  • Evidence: Jigsaw Fit, Rocks of the Same Age Across Oceans, Tillite, Placer Deposits, Distribution of Fossils
  • Forces of Drifting: Pole Fleeing Force, Tidal Force

Post Drift Studies

• Convectional Current Theory
• Mapping of the Ocean Floor
• Continents - Plate Tectonics
  • Lithospheric Plates: Major Plates, Minor Plates
  • Plate Boundaries: Divergent, Convergent, Transform
  • Rates of Plate Movements
  • Force of Plate Movements

Landforms and their Evolution

• Causes
• Geomorphic Processes
• Agents: Geomorphic Agents
  • Erosional or Destructional Agents
  • Depositional or Constructional Agents
  • Agents and their Impacts: Wind, Running Water, Ground Water, Glaciers, Waves & Currents

Winds

• Erosional Landforms: Pediments and Pediplains, Playas, Deflation Hollows, Caves, Mushroom Rocks, Table Rocks, Pedestal Rocks
• Depositional Landforms: Barchans, Seif, Parabolic, Transverse, Longitudinal

Running Water (Humid Regions)

• Stages: Youth, Mature, Old
• Erosional Landforms: Valleys, Rills, Gullies, V-Shaped Valleys, Gorges (Hard Rocks), Sedimentary Canyons, Potholes & Plunge Pools, Incised or Entrenched Meanders, River Terraces - Paired & Unpaired
• Depositional Landforms: Alluvial Fans, Deltas, Floodplains, Natural Levees, Point Bars, Meanders, Slip-off Bank, Undercut Bank, Oxbow Lake, Braided Channels

Groundwater (Karst Topography)

• Permeable Rocks
• Percolation, Bedding Plains
• Limestone and Dolomite Regions
  • Erosional Landforms: Pools-Swallow Hole, Valley Sinks (Uvalas), Sinkholes, Collapse Sinks (Dolines), Balkans, Adriatic Regions
  • Depositional Landforms: Stalactites, Stalagmites, Pillar Columns

Glaciers

• Erosional Landforms: Cirque of Tarn Lakes, Hors and Serrated Regions – Arete, Glacial Valleys/Troughs – Fiords
• Depositional Landforms: Glacial Tills, Moraines, Eskers, Outwash Plains, Drumlins

Waves and Currents

• High Rocky Coasts & Low Sedimentary Coasts
  • Erosional Landforms: Cliffs, Terraces, Caves, Stacks
  • Depositional Landforms: Beaches and Dunes, Bars, Barriers, Spits

Weathering

• Weather Over Earth Materials
• Factors: Geological, Climatic, Topographic, Vegetative
  • Major Processes: Chemical, Physical or Mechanical, Biological
  • Chemical Forces: Solution, Carbonation, Hydration, Oxidation & Reduction
  • Physical Forces: Gravitational, Expansion, Water Pressure
  • Effects of Weathering: Exfoliation (Flaking) – Exfoliation Domes, Tors

Mass Movements

• Activating Causes
• Forms of Movement: Heave, Flow, Slide
• Three Major Groups: Slow Movement, Rapid Movements, Landslides

Landforms Across the World

• Rivers and Lakes
• Mountains & Peaks
  • Fold Mountains
  • Block Mountains
  • Volcanic Mountains
• Plateaus
  • Plateau Formation Process
  • Plateau Types: Dissected Plateau, Volcanic Plateau
  • Economic Significance of Plateaus
  • Major Plateaus of the World

Climatology

• Composition of Atmosphere: Gases, Water Vapour, Dust Particles
• Structure: Exosphere, Thermosphere, Mesosphere, Stratosphere, Troposphere
  • Altitude vs Temperature

Solar Radiation Heat Balance

• Temperature
  • Insolation: Aphelion and Perihelion, Variability at the Earth's Surface, Day Season Year, Rotation on Axis, Angle of Inclination of Sun Rays, Length of the Day
  • Heat Balance: Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere - Conduction, Convection, Advection, Terrestrial Radiation, Heat Budget of the Planet Earth - Macro Budget, Albedo, Shortwave Radiation, Longwave Earth Radiation, Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth's Surface

Temperature

• Factors Controlling Distribution
• Inversion of Temperature

Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems

• Atmospheric Pressure: Vertical Variation, Horizontal Distribution, World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
  • Factors Affecting Wind: Pressure Gradient Force, Frictional Force, Coriolis Force, Cyclonic & Anticyclone Circulation

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

• Pattern of Planetary Winds
  • Latitudinal Variation of Atmospheric Heating
  • Emergence of Pressure Belts
  • Migration of Belts Following Apparent Path of Sun
  • Distribution of Continents & Oceans
  • Rotation of the Earth
• Simplified Global Circulation: Hadley Cell, Ferrel Cell, Polar Cell
• Seasonal Wind, Local Wind: Land and Sea Breezes, Mountain and Valley Winds

Air Mass

• Fronts, Extra Tropical Cyclone, Thunderstorms, Tornadoes

Water in the Atmosphere

• Water Vapor in the Air, Precipitation, Humidity (Absolute and Relative), Saturation, Dew Point, Evaporation, Condensation
  • Formation of Dew, Frost, Fog, Mist
  • Various Types of Clouds: Cirrus, Cumulus, Stratus, Nimbus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus, Altostratus, Altocumulus, Stratocumulus, Cumulonimbus
  • Types of Precipitation: Rainfall, Snowfall, Sleet, Hail, Conventional, Orographic, Cyclonic, Frontal, Monsoonal Rainfall
  • Distribution of Rainfall Across the World
  • Tropical Cyclones: Formation Conditions, Convective Cyclogenesis, Paths, Damage, Cyclones in the Arabian Sea, Naming Conventions, Early Warning Systems

Jet Streams

• Features and Types: Permanent and Temporary
  • Impact on Weather Patterns

Temperate Cyclones

• Air Masses, Fronts, Origin and Development
  • Comparison with Tropical Cyclones

Polar Vortex

• Explanation, Characteristics, Relationship with Ozone Depletion

El Nino and La Nina

• Understanding ENSO and the Indian Ocean Dipole Effect
  • Effects on Regional and Global Climate Patterns
  • Influence on the Indian Monsoon

World Climate

• Descriptions of Various Climate Types: Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate, Tropical Monsoon, Tropical Marine, Savanna or Sudan, Hot Desert, Mid-Latitude Desert, Warm Temperate Western Margin, Temperate Continental, Warm Temperate Eastern Margin, Cool Temperate Western Margin, Cool Temperate Continental, Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climates

Oceanography

• Water on the Surface of the Earth: Hydrological Cycle Components and Processes

Oceans

• Relief of the Ocean Floor: Four Divisions - Continental Shelf, Continental Slope, Deep Sea Plain, Oceanic Deep and Trenches
  • Minor Relief Features: Mid-Oceanic Ridges, Seamounts, Submarine Canyons, Guyots, Atolls

Temperature of the Ocean Water

• Vertical and Spatial Variations
  • Factors Influencing Temperature Distribution
  • Explanation of the Thermocline and Its Three Layers

Salinity of the Ocean Water

• Factors Affecting Salinity
  • Vertical Distribution of Salinity
  • Understanding the Density of Ocean Waters

Ocean Water Movements

• Factors Influencing and Resources

Currents

• Horizontal and Vertical Motion: Ocean Currents' Role in Water Movement
  • Waves: Motion of Water Molecules, Characteristics (Wavelength, Amplitude, Frequency)

Gravitational Forces and Tides

• Tidal Currents, Types, Importance
  • Ocean Currents: Primary Force Initiating, Secondary Forces Affecting, Types (Cold and Warm Currents), Major Ocean Currents of the World, Effects

Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

• Resources from the Ocean: Deposits, Mineral Resources on Deep Sea Floor, Energy Resources, Biotic Resources
  • Deep Ocean Mission, UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)

Water Resources

• Utilization of Inland and Oceanic Water Resources, Water Usage Trends, Water Contamination, Preservation, Methods for Conservation, Interlinking of Rivers Projects, Challenges with Aging Dams

Biogeography

• Soil: Characteristics, Factors Responsible for Formation, Stages, Processes, Profiles, Classification, Erosion, and Conservation
• Vegetation Resources: Types, Forests (Economic, Ecological, Cultural Significance), Factors of Development, Extent, Classification, Grasslands, Desert Vegetation, Tundra Vegetation, Economic Utilization, Deforestation (Tropical, Temperate), Conservation Strategies (Reforestation, Monoculture Plantation, Afforestation), Types of Forestry (Social, Agro-forestry, Miyawaki Method)

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Physical Geography of India

Geographical Location

• Geopolitical Importance
• Geological Regions: Deccan Plateau, The Himalayas, Other Mountain Ranges on the Peninsula, Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain, Geographical Divisions

Water Drainage System in India

• Drainage System of the Himalayas: River Networks (Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra)
• River Networks in the Peninsular Region: Small Rivers Flowing Eastward and Westward

Climate

• Weather Patterns
  • Factors Affecting India's Climate
  • Monsoon Phenomenon: Mechanism, Traditional and Contemporary Theories (Air Mass, Jet Stream), EL-NINO and LA-NINA Impact, Seasonal Cycle (Cold, Hot, Southwest Monsoon, Retreating Monsoon), Climatic Zones

Soils in India

• Types, Textures, Challenges of Degradation and Erosion, Conservation Measures

Natural Vegetation

• Categories of Forests, Extent of Forest Cover, Conservation Issues

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Human Geography

Demography

• Human Resources Concept
• Distribution of Population: Factors (Physical, Socio-cultural, Demographic)
• Global Population Distribution, Population Density (Patterns, Causes)
• Population Characteristics: Age Composition, Population Pyramids, Gender Composition, Literacy Rates
• Theories of Population Growth: Malthusian, Marxian, Demographic Transition
• Population Challenges: Issues in Developing and Developed Countries

Urbanization

• India's Urbanization Features and Patterns, Challenges (Rural-Urban Migration, Emergence of Slums, Informal Settlements, Urban Transport, Waste Disposal, Water Supply, Drainage, Sanitation, Urban Poverty)
• Inclusive Cities/Smart Cities: Development, Government Initiatives
• Migration & Reverse Migration: Rehabilitation Policy
• Types of Urban Settlements, Urban Growth Process, Morphology of Urban Settlements, Town Planning, Patterns of Rural Settlement
• Migration: Push and Pull Factors, Within Country and Across Borders
• Categorization of Cities Based on Functions
• Boundaries and Frontiers: Classification
• National Urbanisation Policy, Government Policy on Urban Development, Principles of Urban Planning, Changes in Land Use and Cover, Factors Affecting Rural Settlements (Types, Pattern), Cities Classification (Hierarchical, Morphological)

Census

• Literacy, Sex Ratio, Family Planning, Old Age, Age Structure, Density, Population Growth, Census Terminology

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Economic Geography of India

Agriculture Land Resource

• Land-use, Land Capability Classification, Causes and Impact of Land Degradation, Steps by GOI, Sustainable Land Management, Performance of the Agriculture Sector, Types of Farming, Cropping Seasons
• Infrastructure Factors: Seeds, Fertilizers, Irrigation
• Land Use Pattern in India, Institutional Factors: Land Reform, Horticulture Sector
• Agricultural Revolutions, Agricultural Labour, Price Policy, Major Schemes, National Policy for Farmers, Impact of Climate Change, Sustainable Agriculture, Use of IT, Issues and Challenges

Productivity of Crops and Conditions for Growth

• Wheat: Conditions, Varieties, Cultivation, Production Pattern, International Trade
• Rice: Conditions, Varieties, Methods of Cultivation, Production Pattern, International Trade
• Maize (Corn): Conditions, Production Pattern, International Trade
• Barley: Conditions, Production Pattern, International Trade
• Coffee: Types, Conditions, Production Pattern, International Trade

Fiber Crops

• Cotton: Varieties, Conditions, Production Pattern, International Trade
• Jute: Conditions, Production Pattern, International Trade, Substitutes (Flax, Hemp, Sisal)
• Natural Rubber: Sources, Plantations in Southeast Asia, Production Pattern, International Trade
• Sugarcane: Conditions, Production Pattern

Mineral Resources

• Types: Metallic and Non-metallic
• Distribution and Mining Regions
• Metallic Minerals: Ferrous Metals (Iron Ore, Ferro-Alloys, Non-Ferrous Manganese, Chromium, Nickel, Tungsten, Antimony, Copper, Bauxite, Aluminium, Zinc, Lead, Tin), Precious Metals (Gold, Silver, Platinum), Mineral Chemicals (Mica, Potash, Phosphate, Nitrates, Sulphur)
• Energy Resources: Classification, Production, General Trends of Energy Production and Consumption, Reserves and Sources

Coal

• Nature and Origin, Constituents, Types, Fields, Production, By-products, Conservation

Petroleum

• Nature and Properties, Origin and Recovery, Exploration, Refining, Reserves, Producing Areas, Consumption, International Trade, OPEC's Role

Hydro-electricity

• Ideal Conditions, Distribution, Generation

Atomic (Nuclear) Energy

• Source Minerals: Uranium, Thorium
• Production, Distribution, Future Potential

Renewable Energy

• Solar, Wind, Geothermal, Tidal, Wave, Biomass, Alternative Energy Sources, Hydrogen as Fuel

Industry

• Industrial Development: Iron and Steel (Production Process, Location, Distribution, Global Production, International Trade, Growth Potential)
• Textile Industry: Cotton, Woollen, Silk, Synthetic Silk, Man-made Fibre and Fabrics (Geographical Location, Trends, Distribution, Production)
• Engineering Industries: Various Aspects, Machine Tools, Industrial Machinery, Agricultural Machinery, Automobiles, Railway Cars, Locomotives, Ships, Aircraft

Chemical Industry

• Different Classes, Heavy Chemical Industry, Fertilizer Industry (Production of Nitrogen, Phosphate, Potash Fertilizers)

Transport and Communication

• Land Transport: Roads, Railways
• Water Transport: Sea Routes, Shipping Canals, Inland Waterways
• Air Transport: Pipelines, Regional Rapid Transit System, AERA Act Amendment